doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2018.410-422
Share this article on [Facebook] [LinkedIn]
Article history: Received: 03-12-2017, Accepted: 26-02-2018, Published online: 05-04-2018
Corresponding author: Kamal Niaz
E-mail: kamalniaz1989@gmail.com
Citation: Niaz K, Maqbool F, Khan F, Hassan FI, Momtaz S, Abdollahi M (2018) Comparative occurrence of diabetes in canine, feline, and few wild animals and their association with pancreatic disease and ketoacidosis with therapeutic approach, Veterinary World, 11(4): 410-422.Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder in which blood glucose level raises that can result in severe complications. However, the incidence increased mostly by obesity, pregnancy, persistent corpus luteum, and diestrus phase in humans and animals. This review has focused on addressing the possible understanding and pathogenesis of spontaneous DM in canine, feline, and few wild animals. Furthermore, pancreatic associated disorders, diabetic ketoacidosis, hormonal and drug interaction with diabetes, and herbal remedies associated with DM are elucidated. Bibliographic search for the present review was done using PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar for articles on concurrent DM in small and wild animals. Persistent corpus luteal and pseudopregnancy in female dogs generate gestational DM (GDM). GDM can also be caused by extensive use of drugs/hormones such as glucocorticosteroids. Although many similarities are present between diabetic cats and diabetic humans which present islet amyloidosis, there was a progressive loss of β- and α-cells and the normal number of δ-cells. The most prominent similarity is the occurrence of islet amyloidosis in all cases of diabetic cat and over 90% of human non-insulin dependent DM Type-2. Acute pancreatic necrosis (APN) occurs due to predisposing factors such as insulin antagonism, insulin resistance, alteration in glucose tolerance, obesity, hyperadrenocorticism, and persistent usage of glucocorticoids, as these play a vital role in the progression of APN. To manage such conditions, it is important to deal with the etiological agent, risk factors, diagnosis of diabetes, and hormonal and drug interaction along with its termination with suitable therapy (herbal) protocols. It should be noted that the protocols used for the diagnosis and treatment of human DM are not appropriate for animals. Further investigations regarding diabetic conditions of pets and wild animals are required, which will benefit the health status of all animals health worldwide.
Keywords: amyloidosis, diabetes mellitus, gestational diabetes mellitus, hypercortisolism, necrosis, pancreatitis.
1. Catchpole, B., Adams, J.P., Holder, A.L., Short A.D., Ollier, W.E. and Kennedy, L.J. (2013) Genetics of canine diabetes mellitus: Are the diabetes susceptibility genes identified in humans involved in breed susceptibility to diabetes mellitus in dogs? Vet. J., 195: 139-147. [Crossref]
2. American Diabetes Association. (2014) Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care, 37: S81-S90. [Crossref]
3. Robinson, W.F., Robinson, N.A. and Maxie, M.G. (2016) Jubb, Kennedy, and Palmar's Pathology of Domestic Animals. Elsevier, St. Louis, MO. p1-101.
4. Akash, M.S., Rehman, K. and Chen, S. (2013) An overview of valuable scientific models for diabetes mellitus. Curr. Diabetes Rev., 9: 286-93. [Crossref] [PubMed]
5. Ganguly, S. (2014) Canine diabetes mellitus: Diagnosis, adequate care and overall management practices involved. Int. J. Pharm. Life Sci., 5: 4022-4023.
6. Bolton, T.A., Cook, A., Steiner, J.M. and Fosgate, G.T. (2016) Pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity in serum of dogs with diabetic ketoacidosis. J. Vet. Intern. Med., 30: 958-963. [Crossref] [PubMed] [PMC]
7. Fall, T., Hamlin, H.H., Hedhammar, A., Kampe, O., and Egenvall, A. (2007) Diabetes mellitus in a population of 180,000 insured dogs: incidence, survival, and breed distribution. J. Vet. Intern. Med., 21: 1209. [Crossref] [PubMed]
8. Poppl, A.G., Mottin, T.S. and Gonzalez, F.H. (2013) Diabetes mellitus remission after resolution of inflammatory and progesterone-related conditions in bitches. Res. Vet. Sci., 94: 471-473. [Crossref] [PubMed]
9. Liao, S., Vickers, M.H., Stanley, J.L., Ponnampalam, A.P., Baker, P.N. and Perry, J.K. (2015) The placental variant of human growth hormone reduces maternal insulin sensitivity in a dose-dependent manner in C57BL/6J mice. Endocrinology, 157: 1175-1186. [Crossref] [PubMed]
10. Mattin, M.J., O'Neill, D.G., Church, D.B., McGreevy, P.D., Thomson, P.C. and Brodbelt, D.C. (2014) An epidemiological study of diabetes mellitus in dogs attending first opinion practice in the UK. Vet. Microbiol., 174: 349. [Crossref]
11. Davison, L. (2015) Diabetes mellitus and pancreatitis in dogs and cats-cause or effect? J. Small Anim. Pract., 56: 50-59. [Crossref] [PubMed]
12. Alvarez, M.S., Herreria-Bustillo, V., Utset, A.F. and Martinez, J. (2015) Juvenile diabetes mellitus and concurrent exocrine pancreatic insufficiency in a Labrador retriever: long-term management. J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assoc., 51: 419-423. [Crossref] [PubMed]
13. O'Kell, A.L., Wasserfall, C., Catchpole, B., Davison, L.J., Hess, R.S., Kushner, J.A. and Atkinson, M.A. (2017) Comparative pathogenesis of autoimmune diabetes in humans, nod mice, and canines: has a valuable animal model of Type 1 diabetes been overlooked? Diabetes, 66: 1443-1452. [Crossref] [PubMed]
14. Bellumori, T.P., Famula, T.R., Bannasch, D.L., Belanger, J.M. and Oberbauer, A.M. (2013) Prevalence of inherited disorders among mixed-breed and purebred dogs: 27, 254 cases (1995-2010). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 242: 1549-1555. [Crossref] [PubMed]
15. Gilor, C., Niessen, S.J., Furrow, E. and Di Bartola, S.P. (2016) What's in a name? Classification of diabetes mellitus in veterinary medicine and why it matters. J. Vet. Intern. Med., 30: 927-940. [Crossref] [PubMed] [PMC]
16. Ahlgren, K.M., Fall, T., Landegren, N., Grimelius, L., Von Euler, H., Sundberg, K., Lindblad-Toh, K., Lobell, A., Hedhammar, A., Andersson, G. and Hansson-Hamlin, H. (2014) Lack of evidence for a role of islet autoimmunity in the aetiology of canine diabetes mellitus. PLoS One, 9(8): 105473. [Crossref]
17. Qadri, K., Ganguly, S., Praveen, P.K. and Wakchaure, R. (2015) Diabetes mellitus in dogs and its associated complications: A review. Int. J. Rec. Biotech., 3: 18-22.
18. Ciobotaru, E. (2013) Spontaneous diabetes mellitus in animals. In: Diabetes Mellitus-Insights and Perspectives. InTech, Rijeka, Croatia. [Crossref]
19. Mao, J., Xia, Z., Chen, J. and Yu, J. (2013) Prevalence and risk factors for canine obesity surveyed in veterinary practices in Beijing, China. Prev. Vet. Med., 112: 438-42. [Crossref] [PubMed]
20. Adolphe, J.L., Silver, T.I., Childs, H., Drew, M.D. and Weber, L.P. (2014) Short-term obesity results in detrimental metabolic and cardiovascular changes that may not be reversed with weight loss in an obese dog model. Br. J. Nutr., 112: 647-656. [Crossref]
21. Broussard, J.L., Nelson, M.D., Kolka, C.M., Bediako, I.A., Paszkiewicz, R.L., Smith, L., Szczepaniak, E.W., Stefanovski, D., Szczepaniak, L.S. and Bergman, R.N. (2016) Rapid development of cardiac dysfunction in a canine model of insulin resistance and moderate obesity. Diabetologia., 59: 197-207. [Crossref] [PubMed] [PMC]
22. Lai, M., Chandrasekera, P.C. and Barnard, N.D. (2014) You are what you eat, or are you? The challenges of translating high-fat-fed rodents to human obesity and diabetes. Nutr. Diabetes, 4: e135. [Crossref]
23. Jeong, E., Tan, R.M., Oh, H., Kim, K., Choi, Y., Kim, M.S., Kim, N. and Lee, K. (2016) Imaging diagnosis-endometrial mineralization in a dog. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound., 57: 67-70. [Crossref] [PubMed]
24. Miceli, D.D., Pignataro, O.P. and Castillo, V.A. (2017) Concurrent hyperadrenocorticism and diabetes mellitus in dogs. Res. Vet. Sci., 115: 425-431. [Crossref]
25. Drynda, R., Peters, C.J., Jones, P.M., and Bowe, J.E. (2015) The role of non-placental signals in the adaptation of islets to pregnancy. Horm. Metab. Res., 47: 64-71. [PubMed]
26. Stanczyk, F.Z., and Bhavnani, B.R. (2014) Use of medroxyprogesterone acetate for hormone therapy in postmenopausal women: Is it safe? J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 142: 30-38. [Crossref] [PubMed]
27. Maqbool, F., Mostafalou, S., Bahadar, H. and Abdollahi, M. (2015) Review of endocrine disorders associated with environmental toxicants and possible involved mechanisms. Life Sci., 145: 265-273. [Crossref] [PubMed]
28. Hoenig, M. (2014) Comparative aspects of human, canine, and feline obesity and factors predicting progression to diabetes. Vet. Sci., 1(2): 121-135. [Crossref]
29. Scott-Moncrieff, J.C. (2010) Insulin resistance in cats. Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Anim. Pract., 40: 241-257. [Crossref] [PubMed]
30. Rand, J.S. (2013) Pathogenesis of feline diabetes. Vet. Clin. Small Anim. Pract., 43: 221-231. [Crossref] [PubMed]
31. Reusch, C.E. (2014) Feline diabetes mellitus. In: Feldman, E.C., Nelson, R.W., Reusch, C.E., Scott-Moncrieff, J.C.R. and Behrend, E.N., editors. Canine and Feline Endocrinology. 4th ed. Elsevier, St. Louis, MO. p258-314.
32. Will, S.E., Junior, J.C., Alcantara, D., Fratini, P., Favaron, P.O., Miglino, M.A. and Neto, A.C. (2017) Stem cell therapy to restore pancreatic function in dogs and cats. Braz. J. Vet. Pathol., 5: 99-105.
33. Zini, E., Lunardi, F., Zanetti, R., Heller, R.S., Coppola, L.M., Ferro, S., Guscetti, F., Osto, M., Lutz, T.A., Reusch, C.E. and Cavicchioli, L. (2016) Endocrine pancreas in cats with diabetes mellitus. Vet Pathol., 53: 136-144. [Crossref] [PubMed]
34. Biden, T.J., Boslem, E., Chu, K.Y. and Sue, N. (2014) Lipotoxic endoplasmic reticulum stress, β cell failure, and Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Trends Endocrinol. Metab., 25: 389-398. [Crossref] [PubMed]
35. Zheng, S., Zhou, H., Han, T., Li, Y., Zhang, Y., Liu, W. and Hu, Y. (2015) Clinical characteristics and beta cell function in Chinese patients with newly diagnosed Type 2 diabetes mellitus with different levels of serum triglyceride. BMC Endocr. Disord., 15: 21. [Crossref]
36. Lewitt, M. S., Strage, E., and Church, D. (2016) An individual approach to feline diabetes care: A case report and literature review. Acta Vet. Scand., 58: 63. [Crossref] [PubMed] [PMC]
37. O'neill, D.G., Gostelow, R., Orme, C., Church, D.B., Niessen, S.J., Verheyen, K. and Brodbelt, D.C. (2016) Epidemiology of diabetes mellitus among 193,435 cats attending primary-care veterinary practices in England. J. Vet. Intern. Med., 30: 964-972. [Crossref] [PubMed] [PMC]
38. Nelson, R.W. and Reusch, C.E. (2014) Animal models of disease: Classification and etiology of diabetes in dogs and cats. J. Endocrinol., 222: 1-9. [Crossref]
39. Fortin, J.S. and Benoit-Biancamano, M.O. (2015) Wildlife sequences of islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) identify critical species variants for fibrillization. Amyloid, 22:194-202. [Crossref]
40. Varonin, J. (2016) Characterization of GFAP+ Islet Glial Cells. Doctoral Dissertation, University of California, San Francisco, CA.
41. Woldemeskel, M. (2012) A concise review of amyloidosis in animals. Vet. Med. Int., 2012: 1-11. [Crossref] [PubMed] [PMC]
42. Bitan, G., Shanmugam, A., Lomakin, A., Schrader, T., Klarner, F.G., Talbiersky, P., Polkowska, J., Bastkowski, F., Sinha, S., and Frautschy, S. (2014) The Regents of the University of California, Assignee. Molecular Tweezers for the Treatment of Amyloid-Related Diseases. US Patent No. 8791092.
43. Akter, R., Cao, P., Noor, H., Ridgway, Z., Tu, L.H., Wang, H., Wong, A.G., Zhang, X., Abedini, A., Schmidt, A.M. and Raleigh, D.P. (2016) Islet amyloid polypeptide: Structure, function, and pathophysiology. J. Diabetes Res., 2016: 1-18. [Crossref] [PubMed] [PMC]
44. Henson, M.S., Hegstad-Davies, R.L., Wang, Q., Hardy, R.M., Armstrong, P.J., Jordan, K., Johnson, K.H., O'Brien, T.D. (2011) Evaluation of plasma islet amyloid polypeptide and serum glucose and insulin concentrations in nondiabetic cats classified by body condition score and in cats with naturally occurring diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Vet Res., 72: 1052-1058. [Crossref]
45. O'Brien, T., Butler, P., Westermark, P. and Johnson, K. (1993) Islet amyloid polypeptide: a review of its biology and potential roles in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus. Vet. Pathol., 30: 317-332. [Crossref]
46. Li, L.O., Klett, E.L. and Coleman, R.A. (2010) Acyl-CoA synthesis, lipid metabolism and lipotoxicity. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. Mol. Cell Biol. Lipids, 1801: 246-251. [Crossref] [PubMed] [PMC]
47. Feldhahn, J., Rand, J. and Martin, G. (1999) Insulin sensitivity in normal and diabetic cats. J. Feline Med. Surg, 1: 107-115. [Crossref]
48. Mori, A., Lee, P., Takemitsu, H., Iwasaki, E., Kimura, N., Yagishita, M., Hayasaka, M., Arai, T. (2009) Decreased gene expression of insulin signaling genes in insulin-sensitive tissues of obese cats. Vet. Res. Commun., 33: 315-329. [Crossref] [PubMed]
49. Laflamme, D. (2012) Companion animals symposium: Obesity in dogs and cats: What is wrong with being fat? J. Anim. Sci., 90: 1653-1662. [Crossref] [PubMed]
50. Rand, J.S., Fleeman, L.M., Farrow, H.A., Appleton, D.J. and Lederer, R. (2004) Canine and feline diabetes mellitus: Nature or nurture? J. Nutr., 134: 2072S-2080S. [Crossref] [PubMed]
51. Zoran, D.L. (2010) Obesity in dogs and cats: A metabolic and endocrine disorder. Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Anim. Pract., 40: 221-239. [Crossref] [PubMed]
52. Rosenblum, I., Barbolt, T. and Howard, C. Jr. (1980) Diabetes mellitus in the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). J. Med. Primatol., 10: 93-101. [Crossref]
53. Davis, K., Bell, R., Wilhelmsen, C., Langford, M.J., Montali, R.J. (1994) Immunohistochemical analysis of spontaneous pancreatic islet amyloid deposits in nonhuman primates. Vet. Pathol., 31: 479-479. [Crossref] [PubMed]
54. De Koning, E., Bodkin, N., Hansen, B. and Clark, A. (1993) Diabetes mellitus in Macaca mulatta monkeys is characterised by islet amyloidosis and reduction in beta-cell population. Diabetologia, 36: 378-384. [Crossref] [PubMed]
55. Howard, C. Jr., and Palotay, J. (1975) Spontaneous diabetes mellitus in Macaca cyclopis and Mandrillus leucophaeus: Case reports. Lab. Anim. Sci., 25: 191-196. [PubMed]
56. O'Brien, T., Wagner, J., Litwak, K., Carlson, C.S., Cefalu, W.T., Jordan, K., Johnson, K.H. and Butler, P.C. (1996) Islet amyloid and islet amyloid polypeptide in cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis): An animal model of human non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Vet. Pathol., 33: 479-485. [Crossref]
57. Hubbard, G., Steele, K., Davis, K. and Leland, M. (2002) Spontaneous pancreatic islet amyloidosis in 40 baboons. J. Med. Primatol., 31: 84-90. [Crossref] [PubMed]
58. Hubbard, G.B., Lee, D.R., and Steele, K.E., Lee, S., Binhazim, A.A. and Brasky, K.M. (2001) Spontaneous amyloidosis in twelve chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. J. Med. Primatol., 30: 260-267. [Crossref] [PubMed]
59. Wagner, J.D., Carlson, C.S., O'Brien, T.D., Anthony, M.S., Bullock, B.C. and Cefalu, W.T. (1996) Diabetes mellitus and islet amyloidosis in cynomolgus monkeys. Lab. Anim. Sci., 46: 36-41. [PubMed]
60. Gamble, K.C., Garner, M.M., Krause, L. and Alvarado, T.P. (2004) Pancreatic islet fibrosis in rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis), Part 1: Case histories, clinical pathology, and epizootiology. J. Zoo Wildlife Med., 35: 361-369. [Crossref]
61. Meegan, J.M., Sidor, I.F., Steiner, J.M., Sarran, D. and Dunn, J.L. (2008) Chronic pancreatitis with secondary diabetes mellitus treated by use of insulin in an adult California sea lion. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 232: 1707-1712. [Crossref] [PubMed]
62. Kollias, G. Jr. Calderwood-Mays, M. and Short, B. (1984) Diabetes mellitus and abdominal adenocarcinoma in a Jaguar receiving megestrol acetate. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 185: 1383-1386. [PubMed]
63. Prowten, A.W. (1975) Case report: diabetes mellitus in an African spotted leopard. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet.,: 215-217.
64. Pirarat, N., Kesdangsakolwut, S., Chotiapisitkul, S. and Assarasakorn, S. (2008) Spontaneous diabetes mellitus in captive Mandrillus sphinx monkeys: A case report. J. Med. Primatol., 37: 162-165. [Crossref] [PubMed]
65. Remick, A., Wood, C., Cann, J., Gee, M.K., Feiste, E.A., Kock, N.D. and Cline JM. (2006) Histologic and immunohistochemical characterization of spontaneous pituitary adenomas in fourteen cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Vet. Pathol. Online, 43: 484-493. [Crossref] [PubMed]
66. Heidt, G., Conaway, H., Frith, C. and Farris, H. Jr. (1984) Spontaneous diabetes mellitus in a captive golden-mantled ground squirrel, Spermophilus lateralis (Say). J. Wildlife Dis., 20: 253-255. [Crossref] [PubMed]
67. Gull, J., Steinmetz, H., Clauss, M., Dorothea, B., Pete, O., Christian, J.W. and Jean-Michel, H. (2009) Occurrence of cataract and fatty liver in captive plains viscachas (Lagostomus maximus) in relation to diet. J. Zoo Wildlife Med., 40: 652-658. [Crossref] [PubMed]
68. Weir, B.J. (1974) The development of diabetes in the tuco-tuco (Ctenomys talarum). Proc. R. Soc. Med., 67: 843. [PubMed] [PMC]
69. Niklasson, B., Heller, K.E., Schonecker, B., Bildsoe, M., Daniels, T., Hampe, C.S., Widlund, P., Simonson, W.T., Schaefer, J.B., Rutledge, E., Bekris, L., Lindberg, A.M., Johansson, S., Ortqvist, E., Persson, B. and Lernmark, A. (2003) Development of Type 1 diabetes in wild bank voles associated with islet autoantibodies and the novel ljungan virus. J. Diabetes Res., 4: 35-44. [Crossref]
70. Niklasson, B., Hornfeldt, B., Nyholm, E., Niedrig, M., Donoso-Mantke, O., Gelderblom, H.R. and Lernmark, A. (2003) Type 1 diabetes in Swedish bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus): Signs of disease in both colonized and wild cyclic populations at peak density. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1005: 170-175. [Crossref]
71. Sitbon, G. and Mialhe, P. (1979) The endocrine pancreas of birds. J. Physiol., 76: 5-24.
72. Braun, E.J. and Sweazea, K.L. (2008) Glucose regulation in birds. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Biochem. Mol. Biol., 151: 1-9. [Crossref] [PubMed]
73. Pollock, C. (2002) Carbohydrate regulation in avian species. In: Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine. Elsevier, New York. p57-64. [Crossref]
74. Van Der Kolk, J.H., Hoyer, M.J., Verstappen, F.A., Wolters, M.S., Treskes, M., Grinwis, G.C. and Kik, M.J. (2011) Diabetes mellitus in a 50-year-old captive Asian elephant (Elaphas maximus) bull. Vet. Quart., 31: 99-101. [Crossref] [PubMed]
75. Gancz, A.Y., Wellehan, J.F., Boutette, J., Malka, S., Lee, S.E., Smith, D.A. and Taylor, M. (2007) Diabetes mellitus concurrent with hepatic haemosiderosis in two macaws (Ara severa, Ara militaris). Avian Pathol., 36: 331-336. [Crossref] [PubMed]
76. Iancu, T.C., Ward, R.J. and Peters, T.J. (1990) Ultrastructural changes in the pancreas of carbonyl iron-fed rats. J. Ped. Gastroenterol. Nutr., 10: 95-101. [Crossref] [PubMed]
77. Wallner-Pendleton, E.A., Rogers, D., and Epple, A. (1993) Diabetes mellitus in a red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis). Avian Pathol., 22: 631-635. [Crossref] [PubMed]
78. Desmarchelier, M. and Langlois, I. (2008) Diabetes mellitus in a Nanday conure (Nandayus nenday). J. Avian Med. Surg., 22: 246-254. [Crossref] [PubMed]
79. Pilny, A.A. and Luong, R. (2005) Diabetes mellitus in a chestnut-fronted macaw (Ara severa). J. Avian Med. Surg., 19: 297-302. [Crossref]
80. Candeletta, S.C., Homer, B.L., Garner, M.M. and Isaza, R. (1993) Diabetes mellitus associated with chronic lymphocytic pancreatitis in an African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus erithacus). J. Assoc. Avian Vet., 7: 39-43. [Crossref]
81. Phalen, D.N., Falcon, M. and Tomaszewski, E.K. (2007) Endocrine pancreatic insufficiency secondary to chronic herpesvirus pancreatitis in a cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus). J Avian Med. Surg, 21: 140-145. [Crossref]
82. Tsai, S., Park, J., Hirai, K. and Itakura, C. (1993) Herpesvirus infections in psittacine birds in Japan. Avian Pathol., 22: 141-156. [Crossref] [PubMed]
83. Gravendyck, M., Balks, E., Schroder-Gravendyck, A.S., Eskens, U., Frank, H., Marchang, R.E. and Kaleta, E.F. (1998) Quantification of the herpesvirus content in various tissues and organs, and associated post mortem lesions of psittacine birds which died during an epornithic of Pacheco's parrot disease (PPD). Avian Pathol., 27: 478-489. [Crossref] [PubMed]
84. Watson, P., Roulois, A., Scase, T., Holloway, A. and Herrtage, M.E. (2011) Characterization of chronic pancreatitis in English Cocker Spaniels. J. Vet. Intern. Med., 25: 797-804. [Crossref] [PubMed]
85. Watson, P.J. and Herrtage, M.E. (2004) Use of glucagon stimulation tests to assess β-cell function in dogs with chronic pancreatitis. J. Nutr., 134: 2081S-2083S. [Crossref] [PubMed]
86. Watson, P., Archer, J., Roulois, A., Scase, T. and Herrtage, M.E. (2013) Observational study of 14 cases of chronic pancreatitis in dogs. Vet. Rec. Case Rep., 1: ec4912. [Crossref]
87. Hess, R.S., Kass, P.H., Shofer, F.S., Van Winkle, T.J., Washabau, R.J. (1999) Evaluation of risk factors for fatal acute pancreatitis in dogs. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. (USA), 214: 46-51.
88. Holliman, J.H. (1992) Hepatobiliary system and exocrine pancreas. In: Pathology. Springer, Berlin. p147-162. [Crossref]
89. Mizuno, T., Hiraoka, H., Yoshioka, C., Takeda, Y., Matsukane, Y., Shimoyama, N., Morimoto, M., Hayashi, T. and Okuda, M. (2009) Superficial necrolytic dermatitis associated with extrapancreatic glucagonoma in a dog. Vet. Dermatol., 20: 72-79. [Crossref] [PubMed]
90. Umpierrez, G.E., Murphy, M.B., and Kitabchi, A.E. (2002) Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome. Diabetes Spectr., 15: 28-36. [Crossref]
91. Kerl, M.E. (2001) Diabetic ketoacidosis: pathophysiology and clinical and laboratory presentation. Compendium, 23: 220-228.
92. De Causmaecker, V., Daminet, S. and Paepe, D. (2009) Diabetes ketoacidosis and diabetes ketosis in 54 dogs: a retrospective study. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift, 78: 327-337.
93. Niessen, S., Petrie, G., Gaudiano, F., Khalid, M., Smyth, J.B., Mahoney, P. and Church, D.B. (2007) Feline acromegaly: An underdiagnosed endocrinopathy? J. Vet. Intern. Med., 21: 899. [Crossref] [PubMed]
94. Fracassi, F., Gandini, G., Diana, A., Preziosi, R., Ingh, T.S., Famigli-Bergamini, P. and Kooistra, H.S. (2007) Acromegaly due to a somatroph adenoma in a dog. Domestic Anim. Endocrinol., 32: 43-54. [Crossref] [PubMed]
95. Niessen, S.J., Church, D.B. and Forcada, Y. (2013) Hypersomatotropism, acromegaly, and hyperadrenocorticism and feline diabetes mellitus. Vet. Clin. Small Anim. Pract., 43: 319-350. [Crossref] [PubMed]
96. Gierach, M., Gierach, J., and Junik, R. (2014) Insulin resistance and thyroid disorders. Endokrynol. Polska., 65: 70-76. [Crossref] [PubMed]
97. Hibbert, A. (2016) When can the Dermatologist cause Problems for the Internist? Insponsors 8th World Congress Veterinary Dermatology. p308.
98. Valentin, S.Y., Cortright, C.C., Nelson, R.W., Pressler, B.M., Rosenberg, D., Moore, G.E. and Scott-Moncrieff, J.C. (2014) Clinical findings, diagnostic test results, and treatment outcome in cats with spontaneous hyperadrenocorticism: 30 cases. J. Vet. Intern. Med., 28: 481-487. [Crossref] [PubMed] [PMC]
99. Kimitsuki, K., Boonsriroj, H., Kojima, D., and Park, C.H. (2014) A case report of feline pituitary carcinoma with hypercortisolism. J. Vet. Med. Sci., 76: 133-138. [Crossref] [PubMed] [PMC]
100. Charmandari, E., Nicolaides, N.C. and Chrousos, G.P. (2014) Adrenal insufficiency. Lancet, 383: 2152-2167.
101. Fathallah, N., Slim, R., Larif, S., Hmouda, H. and Salem, C.B. (2015) Drug-induced hyperglycaemia and diabetes. Drug Safety, 38: 1153-1168. [Crossref] [PubMed]
102. Mirhoseini, M., Baradaran, A. and Rafieian-Kopaei, M. (2013) Medicinal plants, diabetes mellitus and urgent needs. J. Herb. Med. Pharmacol., 2: 53-54.
103. Gargari, B.P., Mobasseri, M., Valizadeh, H. and Asghari-Jafarabadi, M. (2015) Effects of Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. (silymarin) Extract supplementation on antioxidant status and hs-CRP in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Phytomedicine, 22: 290-296. [Crossref] [PubMed]
104. Sadeghi, H., Monfared, S.S.M.S., Habibollahzadeh, E., Sadeghi, H., and Baeeri, M. (2009) Effect of setarud (IMODTM) as a new herbal drug on streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Toxicol. Lett., 189: S128. [Crossref]
105. Sarkhail, P., Fadyevatan, S. and Abdollahi, M. (2008) Antioxidant effect of Phlomis persica Boiss. in rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Planta Med., 74: PA165. [Crossref]
106. Russell, K., Omoruyi, F., Pascoe, K. and Morrison, E.S.A. (2008) Hypoglycaemic activity of Bixa orellana extract in the dog. Methods Find. Exp. Clin. Pharmacol., 30: 301. [Crossref] [PubMed]
107. Farzaei, M.H., Rahimi, R., Farzaei, F. and Abdollahi, M. (2015) Traditional medicinal herbs for the management of diabetes and its complications: An evidence-based review. Int. J. Pharmacol., 11: 874-887. [Crossref]
108. Tabatabaei-Malazy, O., Larijani, B. and Abdollahi, M. (2013) A novel management of diabetes by means of strong antioxidants' combination. J. Med. Hypotheses Ideas, 7: 25-30. [Crossref]
109. Faghihi, T., Radfar, M., Barmal, M., Amini, P., Qorbani, M., Abdollahi, M. and Larijani, B. (2014) A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of selenium supplementation in patients with Type 2 diabetes: Effects on glucose homeostasis, oxidative stress, and lipid profile. Am. J. Ther., 21: 491-495. [Crossref]
110. Bahadar, H., Mostafalou, S. and Abdollahi, M. (2014) Growing burden of diabetes in Pakistan and the possible role of arsenic and pesticides. J. Diabetes Metab. Disord., 13: 1. [Crossref] [PubMed] [PMC]