Protozoan Diseases of Livestock in Arunachal Pradesh-An Overview

The people (Tribes) of Arunachal Pradesh have the natural tendency to remain close contact with animals since immortal. The domestic animals are kept in basement of the house with human occupants in the first floor of same house. They remain in close contact with cattle, sheep, goat, pigs, poultry, cats and dogs throughout the year, exposing them to many animal born diseases of occupational risk. People are not aware of zoonotic diseases sharing between domesticated animal and human beings except for Rabies. So, there is regular out break of most common protozoan zoonotic diseases in human Giardiosis caused by Giardia spp. and amoebosis caused by Entamoeba spp. in the state. Another important disease of clinical significance is toxoplasmosis. Toxoplasma usually causes a febrile illness and abortions in pregnant women. The source of infection in humans may be due to close proximity with cats and unhygienic sanitation. Similarly high incidences of sarcocystis were reported form many district of Arunachal Pradesh. Source of transmission were adjudge to be eating of smoked pork and other meat product along with natural habit of eating raw vegetable as salad from contaminated areas could be the probable mode of transmission.


Introduction
alpine or Tundra climate.Below the Upper Himalayas are the Middle Himalayas, where people experience a Arunachal Pradesh means "land of the dawn lit temperate climate.Areas at the sub-Himalayan and mountains" in Sanskrit.It is also known as "land of the sea-level elevation generally experience humid, subrising sun" in reference to its position as the tropical climate with hot summers and mild winters.easternmost state of India.It borders the states of Arunachal Pradesh receives heavy rainfall of 80 Assam and Nagland to the south and southeast, and to 160 inches (2,000 to 4,100 mm) annually, most of it shares borders with Burma/Myanmar the east, Bhutan between May and September.The mountain slopes the northwest, and Tibet in the north.The current and hills are covered with alpine, temperate, and border is the McMahon agreed upon by Great in and subtropical forests of dwarf rhododendron, oak, pine, the then de facto independent Tibet in a 1914 treaty.
bamboo, holong (Shorea) and teak are the main Arunachal Pradesh with a massive 79.59 % rural economically valuable species.population is the largest state in the North-East India (Automated teller machine) of tribes of Arunachal The life cycle of these parasites is complex.Pradesh.Mithuns are widely distributed throughout Single cell oocysts (eggs) are passed in the feces of the state and is concentrated mainly at the altitudes cattle, are resistant to disinfectants, and can remain in 300-3000 meters above sea level.Total mithun the environment (particularly moist, shady areas) for population (1, 84, 394 nos., Livestock census, 2003) in long periods of time and maintain their infectivity.The the state is found to be in increasing trend as revealed oocysts sporulate and these sporulated oocysts are from the comparative of different Quinquennial years.ingested by the host and the sporozoites are released in Lower Subansiri (31,262 nos.) district has the highest the intestine.Sporozoites enter the intestinal cells, mithun population amongst 16 districts in the state, form trophozoites, which in turn divide into many whereas Upper Digang valley has lowest (1,735 nos.) merozoites.These merozoites penetrate additional mithun population.However, Changlang is the only intestinal epithelial cells and form more meronts.district in Arunachal Pradesh where mithuns are not Eventually, macrogametes and microgametes are found (17th census 2003).Pig meat (pork) is liked by formed which combine to produce the next generation each and every community in the region.So, pigs are of oocysts.When the oocysts are mature, they rupture the second most important livestock animals which the host cell and are released into the lumen of the are reared in every house hold, maintained in kitchen intestine and pass out in the feces.waste.
The replication of the coccidia within the host's intestinal cells and the subsequent rupture of the cells Yak is the most important livestock for Brokpa (a are responsible for the disease and the clinical signs pastoral community of Mompas tribe, whose that develop.The severity of the disease is directly professional and livelihoods is dependent on yak related to the dose of infective oocysts that are rearing and moving them for grazing from one place to ingested.The more oocysts ingested, the more severe another) community of Monpa tribe inhabiting in the western part of Arunachal Pradesh i. e Tawang and the subsequent disease.With light infections, the west kameng district (Ranjay K Singh and brokpa damage to the gut cells is minimal and because the community, 2009), the number of yaks were reported cells in the gastrointestinal tract are replaced rapidly to be 7132 and 803 respectively (17th census 2003).the damage is quickly repaired.In the case of heavy The state experiences a negative growth rate of infections, about two weeks after the oocysts are buffalo, but the number of pigs and poultry farms per ingested, most of the epithelial cells at the base of the household in Arunachal Pradesh is maximum among intestinal glands are occupied by meronts or all other North-eastern Indian states.Arunachal ametocytes.As these cells rupture, damage is severe Pradesh faces many constraints in developing its and there is loss of blood into the feces.Also, fluid, livestock's resources as 76.6% of total geographically electrolytes, and blood proteins (albumin) are lost.area are covered under forest.So, whatever grazing Most animals infected with coccidia do not show signs land is there, they are being fast occupied either for of illness.This is due to the normally low dose and after a course of infection the animal is immune to that cultivation or urbanization.Secondly, the absence of particular Eimeria species.However, this does not livestock feed is posing another barrier and finally the mean they are immune to all Eimeria species, unscientific method of livestock's rearing is making therefore, coccidiosis is primarily a disease of the the scenario of Arunachal Pradesh livestock's more young where there is crowding, stress, and/or miserable.In addition to that with rapid growth of nonimmune animals.Older animal certainly act as a human populations increase parasitic infestation, lack reservoir and shed oocysts into the environment.yak, sheep, and goat) are exposed to coccidia infection, a characterised by enteritis, diarrhoea and mortality.The serious managemental disease in small ruminants and bird develops reduced ability to absorb nutrients, large ruminants below 6 month of age and morbidity in which results in weight loss and eventually death.higher age groups, many of the infections are self-Subclinically, it is manifested by poor performance, limiting and mild or asymptomatic.The parasitic impaired feed conversion, poor flock uniformity and infection starts increasing by spring season as poor growth.It also damages the immune system and environmental factors become conducive and more leave poultry more vulnerable to pathogens like favourable through the summer season.Rajkhowa, et Clostridium, Salmonella and E. coli.The disease is al., (2004) has however observed highest prevalence considered as one of the most severe health and (84.6%) during monsoon, lowest (27.3%) in pre-economical problems in poultry that causes an monsoon and 41.7% in winter in mithun calves in enormous loss to poultry producers worldwide.Nagaland.Similar trends of disease prevalence were Medication with sulphonamides and vitamin K supplereported in Arunachal Pradesh (Annual report, 2008).mentation found to effective against Eimeria spp.The species identified from pooled faecal samples in Pig: Among Eight species of Eimeria, Eimeria suis disease investigation laboratory Nirjuli, revealed, and one species of Isospora infectaions in pig-let were Eimeria bovis, E. zuernii, E. bukidnonensis, E. revelled in papum pare district (D.I.Lab., 2008).auburnensis, E. ellipsodalis, E. Canadensis and E. Piglets 5-15 days old are characteristically infected cylindrica.Out of these species Eimeria zuernii and E. with only Isospora suis, which produces enteritis and bovis were most predominant.The predominance of diarrhea.These agents must be differentiated from Eimeria bovis was earlier reported in domestic viruses (swine fever), bacteria (salmonellosis), and animals by Deka et al., (1995), and in mithun calves by helminth that also cause scours in neonatal pigs.Rajkhowa, et al., (2004).
Infection is characterized by a watery or greasy However, sheep and goats are the main victims diarrhea, usually yellowish to white and foul smelling. of coccidiosis.E. arloengi, E.intricata, E. parva and A piglet appears weak, dehydrated, and undersized; E. ninakoyakimovae.(Gupta et al., 1992;Mittra et al., weight gains are depressed, and sometimes piglets die. A contributing factor to mortality is that piglets 1998).
become covered with diarrheic feces and stay damp.Coccidia damage the host's intestinal epithelial cells, making them more susceptible to bacterial

B. Blood Parasites of animals invasion and allowing increased flow of tissue fluid
Arunachal Pradesh harbours a good numbers of into the intestinal lumen.Watery diarrhoea, which blood-borne parasites compared to other north eastern may be bloody in cattle is the major sign of infection states of India except Assam.This is due to the fact that and usually occurs about 2 weeks after ingestion of the state is rich in many tick species and biting insect oocysts.It causes severe enteritis and diarrhoea.
vectors associated with transmission of such parasites.

Clinical coccidiosis in cattle and buffalo is normally
More over the life style of livestock rearing system by seen in animals over 4 weeks of age.Dehydration, trials people of Arunachal Pradesh is most commonly weight loss, tenesmus, rectal prolapse, anaemia or practiced in extensive rearing system proximity to the even death may occur in some cases depending upon forest.As a matter of fact parasitic infestation is more the species involved.likely to occur.Routine surveillance of blood smear However, good stock management and avoidance from all species of animals carried out at disease of stress can considerably reduce the risk of clinical investigatory laboratory (D.I.L) Nirjuli, revealed species disease due to coccidiosis.Adequate nutrition, good of protozoa, ricketsia and microfilaria (nematodes).hygiene practices, reasonable stock density and Haemoprotozoan diseases caused by vectorprevention of other diseases are important.Coccidiostats borne blood protista constitute a disease entity of may be used prophylactically during the anticipated considerable economic importance in the state.period of risk or to treat clinical cases.
Theileriosis, babesiosis and anaplasmosis are the most Poultry: Coccidiosis is one of the most important common important blood protozoan of livestocks in diseases of poultry in India which account for huge Arunachal Pradesh.economic loss.coccidia Species such as Eimeria Anaplasmosis: Anaplasmosis is an infectious tenella, E. necatrix, E. maxima and E. brunette, are disease of livestock that causes destruction of red very common in Arunachal Pradesh (Habung et al., blood cells.The disease is caused by a rickettsial 2008), affecting the young stock of poultry, organism, belonging to the genus, Anaplasma occur in particularly under deep litter systems.The disease is o two forms, A. marginale and A. centrale.That is found temperature rise up to 107 F, enlarged superficial in the red blood cells of infected cattle.Anaplasma lymph nodes accompanied by dullness, anorexia, species are transmitted either mechanically or salivation, lacrymation and discharge from nostrils.biologically by arthropod vectors Argas persicus, The demonstration of Koch's blue bodies in the Dermacentor albipictus, and Ixodes ricinus.Both the lymphocytes and monocytes of the lymph node smear species have been recorded sporadically in lower or peripheral blood film is pathognomonic of the subansiri district in cattle and mithun (Raja, 1997).A disease.Tetracycline has been used with great success Clinical sign includes high body temperature (103in treating Theileria infected animals besides the o 104 F) associated with pyrexia with increased commercially available schizont vaccine for lacrymation and salivation in the affected animals.
prophylactic use.Vaccination against this disease is The demonstration of characteristic organisms not practised due to higher cost and non-availability. in erythrocytes is used for diagnosis.Anaplasma Transmission involves the tick vector and hence marginale appear as dense, rounded and deeply stained elimination of the vector population becomes essential intraerythrocytic bodies, approximately 0.3-1.0µm in for the control of theileriosis.diameter.Most of these bodies are located on or near Trypanosomiasis: Pathogenic trypanosomes cause the margin of the erythrocyte.This feature distinguishes disease in all species of domesticated livestock A. marginale from A. centrale, as in the latter most of throughout many of the tropical and subtropical the organisms have a more central location in the regions of the India.Trypanosoma brucei, T. vivax and erythrocyte.
T. congolense occur wherever vector is found.The Babesiosis : Babesiosis is caused by many Babesia disease outbreaks have been reported from warmer species that infect a wide variety of vertebrate hosts, plains of Pasighat district bordering Assam.However including domestic and wild animals, as well as man.no any incidence in hilly regions of the state has been In nature, babesias typically are transmitted biologically reported so far.Examination of the blood by light by ixodid ticks, Boophilus microplus, but other means, microscopy is the most readily applied method for such as biting flies and fomites that transfer blood diagnosis of trypanosomiasis and, more importantly, from the infected carrier to a susceptible animal, may is a technique which can be easily applied in the field.be involved in the mechanical transmission of these The basic technique, i.e. examination of fresh or intra-erythrocytic parasites.Clinically it is manifested stained blood films, has been modified to improve o diagnostic sensitivity by concentrating the blood by pyrexia (40-42 C) and haemoglobinurea.The through centrifugation in a haematocrit tube, namely disease in small ruminants has not been reported in the the haematocrit centrifuge technique (HCT) or the state.An outbreak of Babesia sp. has been reported dark ground buffy coat technique (DG) (Paris, Murray among yak in the state (Biswas et al., 2004).The and McOdimba, 1982).The clinical signs of disease demonstration of characteristic piroplasmic stages in caused by these organisms vary according to the the erythrocytes from peripheral blood film is used for trypanosome species, the virulence of the particular diagnosis.Berenil is drug of choice used in the region isolate and the species of host infected.Acute disease with great success in treating infected animals in is characterized by anaemia, weight loss, abortion and, addition to supportive therapy.Eradication of the if not treated, possibly death.Animals that survive are Boophilus vectors would eliminate transmission of often infertile and of low productivity.In some Babesiosis, over a period of time.
instances, infected animals show no overt signs of Theileriosis: Theileriosis caused by Theileria disease but can succumb if stressed, for example,by annulata and transmitted through the bites of work, pregnancy, milking or adverse environmental Hyalomma and Rhipicephalus has been considered as conditions (Lucking, 1988).Quinapyramine sulfate the most important blood protista in the region with and chloride salts are used in the state with great higher incidence in exotic breeds and the crossbred success.No vaccine is available.stocks of all age groups consistent with the general epidemiology of the diseases in tropical areas C. Protozoan diseases of other organs (Jithendran, 1998)

. Cases of theileriosis are generally
Toxoplasmosis : Toxoplasma gondii is a world wide observed during summer or rainy season when the zoonotic disease, caused by a coccidian parasite ticks have higher activity although sporadic outbreaks resides in the intestine of members of the cat family.have been recorded year round.The disease in mithun has been recorded in Kurung Kumey District of The Infection is more prevalent in stray cats acting as Arunachal Pradesh (Raja, 2007).Clinically a body predators infected cats typicallly shed Toxoplasma.

Protozoan parasites of intestinal tract signs
of improved animal breeds and vaccination awareness Stress such as shipping, weaning, dietary changes, are restraining the development of livestock sector in cattle shows or sales, and other problems can Arunachal Pradesh.precipitate an outbreak of coccidiosis.The clinical manifested by coccidiosis are Diarrhea (bloody Coccidiosis a parasitic protozoan disease at times), Straining (tenesmus), Loss of appetite, Fever commonly causes by the members of the family (slight), Debility, and Death (in severe cases).Many Eimeriidae, which include the genera Eimeria and affected animals experience weight loss or decreased A.