Update on epidemiology and control of Foot and Mouth Disease- A menace to international trade and global animal enterprise

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is one of the most economically and socially devastating disease affecting animal agriculture throughout the world. This review describes economic impact of disease outbreaks, an update of recent findings in epidemiology of FMD both at International and national level and control of this disease. The etiological agent (FMD virus) is examined in detail at genetic and molecular characterization level and in terms of antigenic diversity.


Introduction
severe impact on national economies with introduction of FMD could have in a FMD free Livestock contributes significantly to the world country.FMD outbreak in UK in 2001 has negative economy.However, animal diseases are still a major consequence not only on agriculture and farming constraint on economic growth, reduction of poverty industry but also for the tourism sector resulting in a and food security.Among the most significant disease 0.2% reduction in GDP [1].The total cost of that is foot and mouth disease (FMD), a highly contagious, outbreak has been estimated at US $ 9 to 13 billion, multi species animal disease with a devastating impact where there were at least US $ 4.5 billion in direct on national economics and trade.FMD affects costs US $ 9 billion in agricultural and tourism sectors.worldwide and is included in the list of diseases Depopulation of 10% of state cattle herds in response notifiable to the World Organisation for Animal to an FMD outbreak in USA generated total economic Health.
losses of US $ 275 million and 9400 jobs [2].There It is recognised as a significant epidemic threatening was severe outbreak of FMD during 2010-2011 in the cattle industry since sixteenth century and till date.
south Korea in which around 3million cattle and pigs It is a major global animal health problem.India is died and the economic loss due to this outbreak was endemic for FMD and it is very much indispensable estimated to be around 3 trillion won [USD 2.7 for our country to control this disease to increase billion] [3].In India, direct losses due to FMD are productivity of livestock sector.In present article estimated to be more than 20,000 crores (4.45 billion effort has been made to briefly review past, present USD) per year.Indirect losses due to FMD are about concepts in epidemiology and control of FMD in 30,000 to 35,000 crores annually [4].FMD causes International and National Scenario which may be of milk losses of approximately 3508 million litres per help in eradication of FMD.year, about 8.5% of total annual milk production [5].

Economic impact
A study conducted to evaluate the effect of FMD on milk yield at Andassa Government dairy farm, FMD is the most contagious transboundary Ethiopia showed that the average milk yield 10 days animal disease affecting cloven footed animals.ahead of FMD infection was found significantly Significant economic losses are produced by its high higher than that of 10 days after the infection [6].morbidity and the export trade restrictions imposed on Economical loss due to FMD is tremendous that affected countries.Many studies highlighted the occurred due to death of young animals, marked from Plateau (80%), Ogun (77.77%),Taraba (73.50%), reduction in milk yield, abortion in advanced Adamawa (68%), Borno (67%), Sokoto (63%) and pregnancy and reduced working ability of the animals Bauchi (27.84%), is only in sheep and goat.None of [7], quality and quantity of meat, reduction in fertility, the pig sera was positive.There is no difference in loss of quality of semen in breeding bulls [8], the seropositivity between cattle sampled at the border disease also restricts the possible export of livestock and those from the trek routes.The result confirmed and livestock products.The economic losses due to that FMD is still an important cattle disease in Nigeria FMD were more to the marginal farmers and in [15].FMD occurred recently for the first time in a animals less than three years of age [9].This disease decade in Japan on April 20, 2010.A total of 292 accounts for a milk loss of US $6.15 per buffalo in outbreaks had been confirmed with about 290,000 India [5], and the production is affected up to 30 % animals having been culled.Epidemiological investi-[10].The median national loss ranged from $2.3 gations indicated that the disease was introduced into billion to 69 billion as the diagnostic delay increased Japan approximately one month before detection.This from 7-22 days.The median national loss was delay in initial detection is considered to have allowed predicted to increase approximately $ 565 million per an increased number of outbreaks in the early stage of hour of delay [11].It is indicated that control of FMD the epidemic [16].could lead to at least 5% annual increase in milk The Regional Research Centre on FMD, Hisar, production and present level of export of meat (80,000 India has done a commendable work on epidemiology tonnes) could be enhanced by 3-5 times [12].It was of FMD in north-west India.A total of 1718 FMD estimated the losses by FMD, due to loss in draught outbreaks were recorded by the Regional Centre, power, animal death and cost of treatment of US$ Hisar in the Haryana state since the inception of the 446.11million.The average annual loss per animal due project .Maximum number (169) of to the FMD in the country was estimated US$3.08 [5].outbreaks recorded during 1976 coincided with heavy An approximate cost of US$19.49, a farmer had rains followed by widespread floods.Likewise, the incurred on treatment of FMD affected buffalo (the lowest number of outbreaks recorded during 2004 to cost category include, immediate loss per buffalo, loss 2009 can be attributed to the implementation of FMDin milk production, cost of treatment i.e., antibiotics, Control Programme in Haryana since January 2004.vitamins, disinfectants and service of veterinary In 2010-2011, 799 outbreaks were reported in officer and cost of mortality) [13].
different parts of India [17].Maximum outbreaks were recorded in the eastern region where there was Epidemiology increase in the number of outbreaks compared to last FMD is the first disease on the OIE listed for year.Drastic reduction in outbreaks was noticed in which the OIE established an Official list of free southern region.FMD cases were not reported in countries and zones.At present, among 178 member Tamil Nadu, whereas Himachal Pradesh and Punjab states of World Organisation for Animal Health, 66 recorded a single case of FMD each.Maximum countries are FMD free (65 without vaccination, 1 incidence of disease was reported in March and from with vaccination), 10 countries have FMD free zones.August to November [17] whereas maximum incidence North America, Majority of South America, Western of disease was recorded during December to March Europe, Australia, Newzealand and most Island [18].countries in pacific are free of the disease.Countries The World Organization for Anima Heath (OIE) code other states that lie on the major cattle trek routes in chapter on FMD includes the camelidae as susceptible Nigeria showed a Higher seroprevalence in cattle to FMD, similar to cattle, pigs, sheep and goat, but samples from Yobe State (82%), followed by those infection dynamics vary across a the species [20].The (O, A, C, Asia 1, SAT 1, SAT 2, SAT 3), which differ in two closely related camel species of Bactrian and distribution across the world.Serotype A and O have dromedary camels posses noticeably different the widest distribution, occurring in Africa, Asia and susceptibility to FMD virus [21].Dromedary camels South America.However, Asia has its own unique appeared to be susceptible with FMD serotype O, but serotype, Asia 1, first detected in samples collected in they are unlikely to play any significant role in the India in 1951 through 1952 [27] and Pakistan in 1954 natural epidemiology of FMD [22].A wide range of [28].The primary serotype-endemic region for Asia 1 wild cloven-footed animals contract FMD including seems to be the Indian subcontinent (Afghanistan, deer and wild pigs.African buffalos play an important India, Pakistan, Bhutan, and Nepal).role in the maintenance of FMDV infection within This serotype has been more sporadically reported National Parks in Uganda.Both SAT 1 and SAT 2 from countries to the west or east; it has spread viruses were isolated, and serological data indicate periodically into the Middle East and occasionally to that it is also likely that FMDV serotypes O and SAT 3 Europe [29], but it has not been reported from Africa or may be present in the buffalo population [23].the America.Since 2004, the region affected by outbreaks Although FMD is known as a disease of clovenof Asia 1 serotype has increased from disease-endemic footed animals it can occur naturally in other animals, countries in southern Asia.Phylogenetic analysis of e.g., the hedgehog (Erinaceus spp.) and infection has complete virus capsid protein 1 (VP1) gene sequences been established experimentally in a number of other demonstrated that the FMDV isolates responsible for species.However, it is doubtful whether these animals these outbreaks belonged to 6 groups within the Asia 1 play any part in the epidemiology of the disease [24].serotype.Some contemporary strains were genetically FMD is not considered zoonotic.Although clinical closely related to isolates collected historically from cases have been proven in human, these are extremely the region as far back as 25 years ago indicating that rare in relation to human exposure during outbreaks some viruses have spread large distances between [24].Epidemiological studies of FMD in North West countries in Asia within a short time [30].A study that India during 2003-04 showed that maximum number reviewed FMDV in the West Bengal region of India of outbreaks involved buffaloes and cattle (either described recovery of Asia 1 from only 15% of FMD simultaneously or alone) followed by goats and sheep cases examined between 1985 and 2002 [31]. 1 outbreaks in the country since 2005.Outbreaks due Among seven serotypes of FMD, type A virus to Asia1 isolates are constantly reported from Gujarat has been genetically and antigenically most hetero- [19].geneous in nature.Global genotyping revealed 26 The type C virus is the least prevalent of all the regional genotypes within three continental topotypes.serotypes, causing about 8% of all FMD outbreaks Continental topotypes are Asian, Europe-South during 1977 to 1990 and 1.6% during 1991 to 1994.American and African.During the last decade, ten Since 1996, type C outbreaks have not been recorded genotypes have been in circulation the world over and in India, and the World Reference Laboratory for FMD it was evident that no type A strain has transgressed the (Pirbright, United Kingdom) has not received any continental barriers during this period [34].
isolates during the past 8 years.The 1D region in the VP 1 coding region based molecular phylogeny viral RNA codes for a major antigenic site consisting has established circulation of 4 genotypes so far in of the GH loop (140 to 160 amino acids) and a minor India.Since 2001, Genotype 18 (VII) has been antigenic site (205 to 210 amino acids) at the C exclusively responsible for all field outbreaks and has terminus of VP1 protein.These two sites are considered outcompeted all other genotypes.Within the currently important for phylogenetic analysis, because genetic circulating genotype 18 (VII) a divergent and unique and antigenic variations in these sites are ascribed to lineage emerged in late part of 2002, which showed an differences among strains [39].Until recently two th amino acid deletion at 59 position of VP3 and vaccine strains, C Bombay/64 and C IND/51/79, have dominated the field outbreak scenario in 2002-03 [35].been used in India; either of these strains was included This deletion is at antigenically critical position in in quadrivalent vaccines by different vaccine manustructural protein VP3, which is considered to be a facturers.The phylogenetic analysis revealed seven major evolutionary jump probably due to immune distinct genotypes for the type C viruses.The Southeast Asian and Indian isolates are grouped under infected by oral route.two distinct genotypes-genotypes VI and VII, While pigs are relatively resistant to infection by respectively.In the phylogenetic tree the C airborne FMD virus.Minimum dose of airborne virus Bombay/64 strain is grouped with the European required to infect pigs is more than 800 TCID Wind 50.strains (genotype III).The C IND/51/79 is grouped borne aerosol virus produced by infected animals are with the Indian isolates but as a distinct lineage carried over 250kms [40].Survival of virus in aerosols (genotype VII).The type C viruses in the subcontinent depends on relative humidity [41].Cattle are mainly are not clearly descendants of the vaccine strains.The infected by inhalation, often from pigs, which excrete Indian type C viruses have a distinct evolution pattern large amount of virus by respiratory aerosols and are and require further scrutiny to determine the origin of considered highly important in disease spread.Large the type C viruses in India.The vaccine strain C amounts of virus are excreted by infected animals IND/51/79 has a wide antigenic spectrum, and is before clinical signs are evident and wind may spread genetically related to the type C Indian isolates.This the virus over long distances [42].Milk and semen strain was characterized at the World Reference from infected cattle may contain virus up to 4 days Laboratory, Pirbright, United Kingdom, after it was before onset of observable signs, but peaks at log 6.7 10 isolated from an outbreak in the state of Tamil Nadu, TCID / ml of milk and log 6.2 TCID /ml of semen 50 10 50 India.This vaccine strain was a part of the quadrivalent as vesicles first appear.Urine may contain log 4.9 10 vaccine manufactured by Indian Immunologicals Ltd., TCID ml and faeces log 5 TCID /gm [43].A novel both O1 Manisa and Asia1 Shamir transmission Type O virus was found to be the dominant FMD required 18 h or more.Viral excretion levels from virus type during 1971 to 2010 in North West India donors (for all three strains) and virus present in room except in 1976 and 1984 when Asia1 overtook other air (for A24Cru and O1 Manisa) were evaluated and virus types.FMD virus subtype A22 was recovered associated with clinical signs and observed transmission from vaccinated organized farms.The vaccine earlier pattern.Virus levels in room air were higher and were did not contain this virus type.Based on the detected longer for A24Cru than for O1 Manisa.These recommendations of this centre, a polyvalent FMD results indicated that direct evidence for important vaccine containing A22 virus subtype is now strain-specific variation in transmission charactericommercially available.The incorporation of FMD stics and emphasized the need for thorough evaluation virus subtype A22 in vaccine resulted in drastic of different FMDV viral strains using a well defined reduction of FMD outbreaks due to this subtype.FMD contact transmission methodology.This information virus type C has not been recorded in this region since is critical for vaccine and bio therapeutic efficacy 1991.Based on this information, Govt. of India has testing, pathogenesis and disease modelling of FMDV recommended the use of trivalent FMD vaccine transmission.[44].

(containing FMD virus types O, A22 and Asia1)
The Carrier State instead of quadrivalent vaccine (used previously) in the recently launched FMD-Control Programme.This Frequency of FMD virus (FMDV) carrier state in has led to drastic reduction in the cost of FMD vaccine cattle in Iran which is endemic to FMD showed 37.7% resulting in savings of crores of rupees in government of cattle were carriers of the virus.Among positive exchequer [25].samples, 60.4% belonged to serotype O.No evidence was detected for the presence of Asia 1 and A Transmission serotypes.Timely estimation of the frequency of Cattle are very susceptible by respiratory route carrier state both in cattle and small ruminants is requiring as little as 20 TCID of virus to establish advocated as a gauge to monitor the virus status in the 50 infection but require 10,000 times more to become region [45].A carrier is defined as one from which virus can be recovered 28 days or more after infection.[13].It can be made possible only through implemen-The infectivity and pathogenicity of FMDV persistent tation of veterinary extension education for livestock infection in cattle in China demonstrated that the owners about economics of the diseases and by readily virulence of the persistent infection strain O/CHN/ availability of vaccination service.There was no FMD 2010/33-OP was lower than popular strain O/CHN/ outbreak in organized farm due to regular and proper Mya 98/2010.The persistent infection has infectivity vaccination [51].Pertaining to the benefits derived by and pathogenicity to cattle and pigs, so it is very the livestock owners by vaccination of their buffaloes important to detect FMD persistent infected animals against FMD, 37.15 per cent of the owners reported and eliminate carriers to control the outbreaks [46].that they save US$9.87-14.76/animals/lactation, The carrier period appears to vary between species, whereas 25.53 per cent and 20.08 per cent of the being in excess of 12 months in cattle, up to 9 months buffalo owners were saving US$ 14.79-19.61and US$ in sheep and goats and at least 5 years in African 4.95-9.84/animal/lactation,if they vaccinate their Buffalo [24].A replication analysis of foot and mouth animals against FMD.The awareness created about disease virus in swine to study carrier stage showed FMD vaccination among the buffalo owners made that "pseudopersistent state" may occur in pigs in them regularly vaccinating their animals which has which virus replicates in lymphoid tissues for a resulted into negligible cases of FMD in linkage prolonged period of time, thereby representing a villages [13].The use of a zoning approach with potential source of virus [47].
vaccination in the endemic area of the Sagaing One study conducted to assess carrier status, Division of Myanmar was found to be an appropriate persistence of virus following vaccination and option for the control of FMD.The complex animal challenge in sheep and goat suggested that vaccination movement patterns and the endemic nature of the disease pose real challenges for its control.However, offers protection from clinical disease even at a low in Myanmar the MTD meeting approach is a costpayload of 0.94 µg and hence one-half of cattle dose of effective option for surveillance to improve the FMD the oil-based vaccine formulations is sufficient to status early in an eradication campaign [52].induce protective immune response in sheep and goats.Since no live virus could be isolated after 5 days Outbreak management post challenge from the nasal swab or probang Outbreaks can be controlled by one or a samples even though viral RNA was detected, the risk combination of two methods: Stamping out (slaughter of these animals transmitting disease was probably of all infected and in contact animals) and routine very low [48].FMDV locates rapidly to, and is vaccination of animals [53].In areas densely populated maintained in, the light zone of germinal centres with livestock and in particular with regards to pigs, following primary infection of naïve cattle.Maintenance ring vaccination poses a valuable tool to deal econoof non-replicating FMDV in these sites represents a mically with an outbreak that is recognised early.Ring source of persisting infectious virus and also contributes vaccination possibly within the infected premises can to the generation of long-lasting antibody responses be employed to control the spread of disease [54].In against neutralising epitopes of the virus [49].Stress areas sparsely populated with livestock, stamping out of moving and mixing carrier cattle was sufficient to or ring culling is optimal method for dealing with an cause these animals to start excreting virus to outbreak [55].As a part of Animal Disease Control precipitate a new outbreak [50].
Project for FMD control in Kerala, outbreaks were

Control of FMD
controlled by restricting animal movement from and to the foci of infection; thorough disinfection of infected Countries in different regions of world adopt premises and treatment of ailing animals, and conducting FMD control policies depending on the epidemiology ring Vaccinations, extending from the periphery to the of disease.In FMD free countries, slaughter of all point of infection within a radius of 5-10 Kms [56].infected and susceptible in contact animals, quarantine of infected animals, strict animal and animal product

Disinfection import regulation and animal movement restrictions
Common house hold bleach is effective disare practiced.FMD endemic countries do not follow infectant of FMD virus at concentration of 3 %.It can stamping out policy and use only vaccination as a be used as on infected premises, but not a good choice measure of control.For effective control of FMD for disinfection of equipments and foot paths.Vinegar about 60-80% of animals need to be covered under at 4-5 % dilution also kills the virus.Lye can be used at vaccination so as to control the outbreak of diseases 2 % dilution, but this is highly caustic.New disin-and difficulties of certain serotypes and subtypes to fectants like Virkos S (per oxygen molecule/ organic grow well in cell culture for vaccine production [64].acid/ surfactant combination) appear to have wider Subunit vaccine is a vaccine containing viral antigens spectrum of activity against many germs including made free of viral nucleic acid by chemical extraction FMD virus.Another compound based on per oxy or bio-expressing and containing only minimal acetic acid (oxy-sept333), now Environmental Protection amounts of non-viral antigens derived from the culture Agency (EPA) approved for FMD virus [57].
medium.It is less likely to cause adverse reactions than a vaccine containing the whole virion.But novel Vaccination vaccines against FMDV are developed slowly, and Argentina suffered an extensive foot-and-mouth only few available novel FMD vaccines have been disease (FMD) epidemic between July 2000 and used in practice.A number of results implied that there January 2002, 3 months after obtaining the official were observed advantages and disadvantages on novel FMD-free without vaccination status conferred by the vaccines arrange the security of production, the security of vaccinated animal, shelf life, duration of World Organization for Animal Health.This is one of immune response, vaccination effectiveness and diffethe largest FMD epidemics controlled by implemenrentiation of infected animals from vaccinated ones tation of a systematic mass vaccination campaign in an [65].FMD-free country.The result of the study demon-Vaccination using plasmid DNA containing strates the protective impact of vaccination in FMDV sequences has been reported as an efficient reducing FMD transmission in infected herds [58].
way to induce protective immunity in the mouse Vaccines are widely employed to control FMD.As model [66].Protection by DNA vaccination in farm early as 1920, FMD losses in Europe were controlled animals has proven challenging and requires multiple by quarantining the infected animals and often doses and addition of adjuvant and cytokines to induce deliberately spreading disease which involved only partial or in some cases full protection [67].rubbing the tongue of healthy cattle with a rough towel Despite short comings, DNA vaccines are appealing contaminated with virus from naturally infected cattle.
because plasmid DNA does not require high containment This was referred to as Aphthisation.In 1925, first facilities for manufacture, is relatively stable for report of successful immunization of calves with storage, allows for rapid incorporation of emerging formalized emulsion of vesicular epithelium was field strain sequence and allows discrimination between published.The first FMD vaccine was produced in infected and vaccinated animals [66].Delivery of 1938 using tongue epithelium harvested from cattle plasmid coated on cationic PLG micro particles deliberately infected with FMD virus [59].The oil enhance the duration of immunity of the DNA vaccine adjuvant vaccine elicited superior immune response at constructs [68].In a study it was found that all DNA any given period of study than aluminium hydroxide vaccinated cattle developed good humoral and cell gel vaccine and immunity maintained for longer mediated responses prior to challenge.The best period.These observations suggest that the oil adjuvenated overall virus neutralising antibody, IFN-γ and clinical vaccine has potential to replace the commercial protection (75%) were seen in the cattle whereby the aluminium hydroxide gel vaccine [60].
DNA was delivered by electroporation.In contrast, However, these vaccines continue to be produced only 25% of cattle vaccinated with the DNAvaccine around the world for use mostly in ruminants.Oil without electroporation were clinically protected.The adjuvant single and double emulsions are used to addition of GM-CSF in combination with electroproduce vaccine for immunisation of all species of animals including pigs.Oil adjuvant vaccine should poration further improved the efficacy of the vaccine, have potency of at least 3 PD and provide protective as demonstrated from the reduction of clinical disease 50 and virus excretions in nasal swabs.Thus demonimmunity within 7 days in cattle, swine and sheep strated for the first time that cattle can be clinically [61].Revaccination must be carried out every 6 protected against FMDV challenge following a DNA months [62].After multiple doses of vaccines in older prime-protein boost strategy, and particularly when animals vaccination frequency could be decreased to DNAvaccine is combined with GM-CSF and once a year provided that no new strains not covered delivered by electroporation [69].by the vaccine formulation emerge or are introduced FMDV peptide vaccine adjuvanted with cholera (63).There are important shortcomings of current toxin and administered intramuscularly elicited antiinactivated vaccines, including short shelf life, the peptide antibodies with enhanced virus neutralizing need for adequate cold chain of formulated vaccines,  as revealed by an increase in T-lymphocyte population.
Projected economic impacts of a foot and mouth FMD infected/vaccinated animals showed higher Thompson, D., Muriel, P.,Russell, D., Osborne, P., (either simultaneously or alone).However during Similarly, in Southeast Asia, where serotypes O 2004-05 and 2005-06, cattle and buffaloes were and A are prevalent every year, outbreaks due to Asia 1 involved only simultaneously.It is worthwhile to have been reported only sporadically in the past 10 mention that during2006-07 and 2007-08 no other years; a recent gap in reporting occurred between 2002 species except cattle were involved in FMD outbreaks.and 2005.Types SAT1, 2 and 3 are currently restricted Further during subsequent years the number of to Africa only and Asia 1 to Asia, but the capacity to outbreaks remained confined to 1-2 only [25].invade other areas is common to all types and In the recent outbreaks during 2011 in different periodically SATs are introduced into the Near East countries the majority of species affected are cattle, and Asia 1 into Western and eastern parts of Eurasia swine and sheep.Source of recent outbreak due to wild [32].During 2004, evidence showed possible life species has been reported in South Africa and northward spread of the Asia 1 serotype; outbreaks Namibia [14].Larger outbreaks occurred in winter were reported in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.In early within the higher deer-density eco region, whereas 2005, an outbreak was recorded in Hong Kong Special larger outbreaks occurred in summer and fall within Administrative Region, People's Republic of China, the lower deer-density eco region.Results of this which suggested that the virus might have crossed simulation study suggest that the outcome of an FMD China.Later in 2005 and 2006, outbreaks of FMD Asia incursion in a population of wildlife would depend on 1 were reported in several provinces and autonomous the density of the population infected and when during regions of China and in Mongolia and Eastern Russia the year the incursion occurs [26].In recent outbreaks [32].In 2005 and 2006, this serotype reappeared in in India, the majority of species involved was cattle, Southeast Asia (Vietnam and Myanmar).In the year although disease reported in buffaloes, pigs, sheep and 2005-2006, three incursions of FMD were reported in goats [17].countries or zones declared officially free by the OIE Molecular Epidemiology and Genetic chara-in Argentina (type O in February 2006), Brazil (type O cterization in September and October 2005) and Botswana (Type SAT 2 in April 2006).In mid-2005, a rapid escalation There are seven recognised serotypes of FMD of type A outbreaks occurred in Iran for which the selection in sparsely vaccinated population of cattle routine vaccination provided little effective immunity.and buffalo [36].In 2010-2011, co circulation of both 53 The virus strain involved named A Iran 05 by the FAO VP deletion and non deletion mutants were reported.World Reference Laboratory has isolated from 80% of field strains showed close antigenic match outbreaks in Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Jordan in with vaccine strain (IND 40/2000) which offers 2006 indicates a wider distribution and capacity of the optimum antigenic coverage over field strains.strain for further spread [32].Viruses of serotype C However IND45/2010 from UP and IND 136/2010 now appear extremely rare.The last confirmed case from Haryana showed poor antigenic relation with was in Kenya in 2005 and the Amazon region of Brazil current vaccine strain [19]. in 2004 [32].Three different groups of FMDV serotype Asia 1 In the current year, serotype O was most have been circulating in Pakistan and Afghanistan prevalent in majority of the outbreaks recorded in since 1998.Serotype Asia 1 was detected again in different countries [32].In African countries serotype 2008-2009 after a gap of 4 years in Afghanistan and 2 SAT2 was mainly responsible for outbreaks [33].First years in Pakistan.A variant of group VII Asia 1 viruses occurrence of 'O ion South East Asia (SEA) topotype' has arisen as a result of recombination between viruses was reported in the outbreak of FMD in swine in belonging to group VII of serotype Asia 1 and serotype Chinese Taipei [14].Three serotypes currently A virus of A-Iran 05 sub lineage presumably due to prevalent in India are O, A and Asia1.Serotype O is simultaneous infection of animals with these two responsible for 70 to 80 % of outbreaks followed by A viruses.Asia1 / Shamir strain which is being used in and Asia1 [17].The serotype C was last recorded in the current FMD vaccine may not efficiently protect 1995 [17].Antigenic analysis of sixteen field isolates against Asia1 viruses circulating in Pakistan and of FMD virus serotype O in the current year showed Afghanistan in 2008-09 [37].Molecular phylogeny that all isolates were antigenically related to currently based on VP1Coding region showed 3 prominent used vaccine strain (O /IND/ R2/1975).Major shift in lineages in India.Lineage B included in vaccine strain genetic lineage of serotype O virus was observed (IND 63/72) did not appear after 2000.Lineage C was circulating in India.Viruses of 'Ind 2001 lineage' prominently circulating during the period 1993 to gained upper hand after a gap of 8 years and 2001[38].A novel divergent genetic lineage (lineage outcompeted pan Asia II lineage in early part of 2008 D) within lineage C appeared in 2001 and out-[17].The re-emergence of 'Ind 2001 lineage' has been numbered in parent l lineage in terms of field traced back to 2008, during which it caused sporadic outbreaks.Lineage C has been responsible for all Asia outbreaks in Northern India [17].
disease (FMD) outbreak in Tennessee.Agri-industry proportions of circulating gamma/delta T-cell population.Modelling and 201Analysis Group Industry brief-This was the first report implicating cellular immune Available at: http://web.utk.edu/~aimag/.pubs/response in FMD infected/vaccinated buffaloes [25].FMD.Pdf 8. Tung, D.X., & Thuy, N.T. (2007).Economic impact Conclusion assessment of foot and mouth disease on small holder Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is one of the farms in Northern Vietnam: control of transboundary animal diseases in the greater Mekong sub region highly contagious diseases of domestic animals.project.Asian Development Bank.FAO, Rome.1-39.Economics of FMD control cannot be estimated 9. Rufaul.T, Catley.A, Boge.A, Sahle.M and Shiferaw.without sound basis of FMD epidemiology.Molecular Y.(2008).Foot and mouth disease in the Borana epidemiological studies help in planning control pastoral system, Southern Ethiopia and implications strategies by elucidating current disease transmission for livelihoods and internationaltrade.Trop.Anim.patterns within and between countries.One of the Heath.Prood.40(1): 29-38.main limitations to FMD eradication is lack of 10.Sharma, M. C and Mahesh, K (2003).Infectious th effective vaccines designed for this purpose, vaccines Diseases of Buffalo.In: Proceedings of the 4 Asian that not only protect against clinical signs but that can Buffalo Congress on "Buffalo for Food Security and actually prevent infection.High levels of genetic Rural employment", held at New Delhi, during diversity will most likely be reflected in antigenicFebruary 25-28, 2003.Volume 1:152-168.11.Carpenter, T.E, Joshua, M., O'Brien, Hagerman, differences and it has been shown that for vaccination A.D and Mc Carl, B.A (2011).Epidemic and to be effective, the viruses incorporated in to the Economic impacts of delayed detection of FMD vaccines need to be antigenically related to viruses disease: a case study of a simulated outbreak in circulating in the field.Furthermore, there is a need for California.J.Vet.Diagn.Invest 23: 26-33.better integrated strategies that fit specific needs of 12. Bhat, P. N and Taneja, V. K(2001).Foot and Mouth endemic regions.Availability of these critical Diseases-Is it an International Convern now.Indian components will greatly enhance the chances for Dairyman.53 (5):5.global control and eradication of FMDV.13.Singh.B.P, Sharma, M.C, and Tiwari.R(2007).Foot and mouth disease vaccination in linkage villages of References IVRI's India.Livestock Research for rural development 19(8).1.