Open Access
Copyright: The authors. This article is an open access
article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0) which permits unrestricted use,
distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly
cited.
Review
(Published
online: 17-01-2015)
13. Japanese encephalitis: Challenges and intervention
opportunities in Nepal - Shristi Ghimire and Santosh
Dhakal
Veterinary World, 8(1): 61-65
doi:
10.14202/vetworld.2015.61-65
Shristi
Ghimire:
National Zoonoses and Food Hygiene Research Center, Kathmandu,
Nepal;
shristig@gmail.com
Santosh
Dhakal: Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Food
Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio, USA;
dhakal.3@osu.edu
Received: 20-09-2014, Revised: 03-12-2014, Accepted: 12-12-2014,
Published online: 17-01-2015
Corresponding author:
Shristi Ghimire, email: shristig@gmail.com
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a
mosquito borne zoonotic disease caused by JE virus (JEV). JE has
been endemic in Terai region, the lowland plains of Nepal
bordering India, since 1978. However, in recent years cases of JE
has been continuously reported from high altitude zones of hills
and mountains. Irrigated rice farming system, expanded pig
husbandry practices, inadequate vaccine coverage, low level of
public awareness and climate change favoring mosquito breeding in
higher altitudes might be the probable risk factors for emergence
and re-emergence of JE in Nepal. Repeated outbreak in endemic
areas and geographical expansion to newer areas have created huge
challenge for JE prevention and control. At present, JE is one of
the major public health concern of Nepal. Expanding vaccine
coverage, improving agricultural practices, generating public
awareness, supporting for use of mosquito avoiding practices and
regional collaboration at border against JE can be helpful in
getting better control over it in future.
Keywords: geographical expansion, Japanese encephalitis,
Japanese encephalitis virus, Nepal, pig.
References
|
1. World Health Organization. (2006) Japanese encephalitis
surveillance standards. Available from: http://www.path.org/files/WHO_surveillance_standards_JE.pdf.
RetrievedLast accessed on 15-8-2014. |
|
|
|
2. World Health Organization. (2007) Third Bi-regional Meeting
on Control of Japanese Encephalitis. Meeting Report. Ho Chi
Minh City, Viet Nam. Printed and Distributed by, World Health
Organization, Regional Office for the Western Pacific, Manila,
Philippines. |
|
|
3. Van den Hurk, A.F., Ritchie, S.A. and Meckenzie, J.S.
(2009) Ecological and geographical expansion of Japanese
encephalitis virus. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 54: 17-35.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.54.110807.090510
PMid:19067628 |
|
|
4. Tsai, T.F. (2000) New initiatives for the control of
Japanese encephalitis by vaccination: minutes of a WHO/CVI
Meeting, Bangkok, Thailand, 13-15 Oct. 1998. Vaccine, 18 Suppl
2: 1-25.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0264-410X(00)00037-2 |
|
|
5. Keiser, J., Maltese, M.F., Erlanger, T.E., Bos, R., Tanner,
M., Singer, B.H. and Utzinger, J. (2005) Effect of irrigated
rice agriculture on Japanese encephalitis, including
challenges and opportunities for integrated vector management.
Acta Trop., 95(1): 40-57.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2005.04.012
PMid:15878762 |
|
|
6. Bista, M.B. and Shrestha, J.M. (2005) Epidemiological
situation of Japanese encephalitis in Nepal. J. Nepal Med.
Assoc., 44(158): 51-56.
PMid:16554872 |
|
|
7. Solomon, T., Dung, N.M., Kneen, R., Gainsborough, M.,
Vaughn, D.W. and Khanh, V.T. (2000). Japanese encephalitis. J.
Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 68: 405-415.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.68.4.405
PMid:10727474 PMCid:PMC1736874 |
|
|
8. Erlanger, T.E., Weiss, S., Keiser, J., Utzinger, J. and
Wiedenmayer, K. (2009) Past, present and future of Japanese
encephalitis. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 15(8): 1-7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1501.080311
PMid:19116041 PMCid:PMC2660690 |
|
|
|
9. Mitamura, T., Kitaoka, M., Mori, K. and Okuba, K. (1938)
Isolation of the virus of Japanese epidemic encephalitis from
mosquitoes caught in nature. Tokyo Iji Shinshi, 62: 820-824. |
|
|
|
10. Mitamura, T., Kitaoka, M., Watanabe, M., Okuba, K.,
Tenjin, S., Yamada, S., Mori, K. and Asada, J. (1936) Study on
Japanese encephalitis virus. Animal experiments and mosquito
transmission experiments. Kansai Iji, 1: 260-261. |
|
|
11. Grossman, R.A., Edelman, R., Chiewanich, P., Voodhikul, P.
and Siriwan, C. (1973) Study of Japanese encephalitis virus in
Chiangmai Valley, Thailand. II. Human clinical infections. Am.
J. Epidemiol., 98(2): 121-132.
PMid:4353436 |
|
|
12. Umenai, T., Krzysko, R., Bektimirov, T.A. and Assaad, F.A.
(1985) Japanese encephalitis: Current worldwide status. Bull.
World Health Organ., 63(4): 625-631.
PMid:3002650 PMCid:PMC2536386 |
|
|
13. Peiris, J.S., Amerasinghe, F.P., Amerasinghe, P.H.,
Ratnayake, C.B., Karunaratne, S.H. and Tsai, T.F. (1992)
Japanese encephalitis in Sri Lanka–The study of an epidemic:
Vector incrimination, porcine infection and human disease.
Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 86: 307-313.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(92)90325-7 |
|
|
14. Solomon, T. (2006) Control of Japanese encephalitis –
within our grasps? N. Engl. J. Med., 355: 869-871.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp058263
PMid:16943399 |
|
|
15. Liu, W., Gibbons, R.V., Kari, K., Clemens, J.D., Nisalak,
A., Marks, F. and Xu, Z.Y. (2010) Risk factors for Japanese
encephalitis: a case-control study. Epidemiol. Infect.,
138(9): 1292-1297.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0950268810000063
PMid:20109262 |
|
|
16. Cao, M., Feng, Z., Zhang, J., Ma, J. and Li, X. (2010)
Contextual risk factors for regional distribution of Japanese
encephalitis in People's Republic of China. Trop. Med. Int.
Health, 15(8): 918-923.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02563.x
PMid:20561307 |
|
|
17. Sunish, I.P. and Reuben, R. (2002) Factors influencing the
abundance of Japanese encephalitis vectors in rice fields in
India. Med. Vet. Entomol., 15(4): 381-392.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.0269-283x.2001.00324.x |
|
|
|
18. Mishra, A.C., Jacob, P.G., Ramanujam, S., Bhat, H.R. and
Pavri, K.M. (1983) Mosquito vectors of Japanese encephalitis
epidemic in Mandya district (India). Indian J. Med. Res., 80:
377-389. |
|
|
19. LeBeaud, A.D. (2008) Why arboviruses can be neglected
tropical diseases? PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 2(6): e247.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000247
PMid:18575597 PMCid:PMC2427179 |
|
|
20. Luo, D., Ying, H., Yoo, R., Song, J. and Wang, Z. (1995)
Socio-economic micro-environmental factors in relation to the
risk of Japanese encephalitis: A case control study.
Southeast. Asian. J. Trop. Med. Public. Health, 26(2):
276-279.
PMid:8629060 |
|
|
|
21. Joshi, D. (1983) Incidence of Japanese encephalitis in
children: 1978, 1979, and 1980 outbreaks. NEPAS. J., 2: 18-25. |
|
|
22. Upreti, S.R., Janusz, K.B., Schluter, W.W., Bichha, R.P.,
Shakya, G., Biggerstaff, B.J., Shrestha, M.M., Sedai, T.R.,
Fischer, M., Gibbons, R.V., Shrestha, S.K. and Hills,
S.L.(2013) Estimation of the impact of a Japanese encephalitis
immunization program with live, attenuated SA 14-14-2 vaccine
in Nepal. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 88(3): 464-468.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.12-0196
PMid:23358643 PMCid:PMC3592526 |
|
|
23. Wierzba, T.F., Ghimire, P., Malla, S., Banerjee, M.S.,
Shrestha, S., Khanal, B., Sedai, T.R. and Gibbons, R.V. (2008)
Laboratory-based Japanese encephalitis surveillance in Nepal
and the implications for a national immunization strategy. Am.
J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 78(6): 1002-1006.
PMid:18541784 |
|
|
24. Pant, S.D. (2009) Epidemiology of Japanese Encephalitis in
Nepal. J. Nepal Paediatr. Soc., 29: 35-37.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jnps.v29i1.1600 |
|
|
25. Zimmerman, M.D., Scott, R.M., Vaughn, D.W., Rajbhandari,
S., Nisalak, A. and Shrestha, M.P. (1997) Short report: An
outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in Kathmandu, Nepal. Am. J.
Trop. Med. Hyg., 57(3): 283-284.
PMid:9311637 |
|
|
|
26. Partridge, J., Ghimire, P., Sedai, T., Bista, M.B. and
Banerjee, M. (2007) Endemic Japanese encephalitis in the
Kathmandu valley, Nepal. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 77(6):
1146-1149. |
|
|
27. Bhattachan, A., Amatya, S., Sedai, T.R., Upreti, S.R. and
Partridge, J. (2009) Japanese encephalitis in the hill and
mountain districts, Nepal. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 15(10):
1691-1692.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1510.081641
PMid:19861079 PMCid:PMC2866384 |
|
|
28. Thakur, K.K., Pant, G.R., Wang, L., Hill, C.A.,
Pogranichniy, R.M., Manandhar, S. and Johnson, A.J. (2012)
Seroprevalence of Japanese encephalitis virus and risk factors
associated with seropositivity in pigs in four mountain
districts in Nepal. Zoonoses Public Health, 59: 393-400.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1863-2378.2012.01456.x
PMid:22883515 |
|
|
|
29. Dhakal, S., Joshi, D.D. and Chand, P.B. (2012)
Geographical expansion of Japanese encephalitis and research
needs in Nepal. Zoonoses Food Hyg. News, 17(4): 2-4. |
|
|
30. Impoinvil, D.E., Solomon, T., Schluter, W.W., Rayamajhi,
A., Bichha, R.P., Shakya, G., Caminade, C. and Baylis, M.
(2011) The spatial heterogeneity between Japanese encephalitis
incidence distribution and environmental variables in Nepal.
PLoS One., 6(7): e22192.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022192
PMid:21811573 PMCid:PMC3141013 |
|
|
|
31. Rao, P.N. (2000) Japanese encephalitis - for doctors,
health workers and parents (what, why, when and how to do
approach). Available from: http://www.indmed.delhi.nic.in &
aphealth.org on. Accessed on 14-03-2013]. |
|
|
32. Dhakal, S., Joshi, D.D., Ale, A., Sharma, M., Dahal, M.,
Shah, Y., Pant, D.K. and Stephen, C. (2014) Regional variation
in pig farmer awareness and actions regarding Japanese
encephalitis in Nepal: Implications for public health
education. PLoS One., 9(1): e85399.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0085399
PMid:24416402 PMCid:PMC3887053 |
|
|
|
33. SEARO/WHO. (2002) Regional committee. Provisional agenda
item 10.2. Fifty-fifth session. Prevention and control of
dengue, Japanese encephalitis and kalaazar in SEA region.
Available from:
http://www.repository.searo.who.int/bitstream/123456789/16633/1/SEA_RC55_7%20done.pdf
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/128840/1/SEA_RC55_7%20done.pdf?ua=1.
Retrieved on 12-8-2014. |
|
|
34. Igarashi, A. (2002) Control of Japanese encephalitis in
Japan: Immunization of humans and animals, and vector control.
Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol., 267: 139-152.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-59403-8_7
PMid:12082987 |
|
|
35. Luo, D., Zhang, K., Song, J., Yao, R., Huo, H., Liu, B.,
Li, Y. and Wang, Z. (1994) The protective effect of bed nets
impregnated with pyrethroid insecticide and vaccination
against Japanese encephalitis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.,
88(6): 632-634.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(94)90201-1 |
|
|
|
36. Houston, R. and Chhetry, D. (2003) Nepal: analysis of
baseline survey data on Japanese encephalitis, kala-azar and
malaria. Environmental Health Project Activity Report 121.
Prepared for the Office of Health, Infectious Diseases and
Nutrition, Bureau for Global Health, U.S. Agency for
International Development, Under EHP Project
27052/E.X.NE5.ME.EO. |
|
